Farm households account for most of the population, production and local demand in rural areas. Thus many people in rural areas. Thus many people in rural areas directly or indirectly depend on the marketing of agricultural surpluses for a substantial proportion of their income. However, there are some rural areas that do not fit this description. For instance rural areas whose economies are based on minerals and frontier areas. In many developing countries, rural areas are areas with x x Poor social, technical and physical infrastructure x High illiteracy rates compared to urban areas x Farming subsistence farming forms a major source of employment x Low incomes x Widespread poverty High out migration What is development?
Numerous theories and definitions for development exist. They have their origin from different schools of thought and scientific disciplines. Development is a process of continues rise in the capability of the people to control their present and future well-being Cuyno, et al.
The definition embraces three basic concepts. Control of oneself. Therefore, development as a process involves both economic growth and social development.
From the economist point of view, development is usually associated with the material well- being of a given society. It is commonly thought of a sustained increase in per capita income commonly known as GNP Garcia, Development is a sociological perspective that involves primarily social change. Bernard S. Philips as cited by Garcia emphasized that the concept of social change converges around the idea of development.
For development to take place in a society, all its structures — social, economic and political — should serve as stimulants to change. If they pose as barriers, development becomes unattainable. Hence, development seems to be much closely related to social change. To the layman, development means having adequate food, i. Development therefore, includes: a The people self-esteem, dignity, security, potential b The economy c Technology d Culture e Moral values f Environmental preservation g Social justice h Literacy and education i Change in social structure j Equal distribution of wealth k Organization l Discipline m Freedom from servitude, debt, etc.
Development is basically to improve in the standard of living of the entire population of a given country or region. It is a process with many economic and social dimensions, but requires as a minimum, rising per capita incomes, eradication of absolute poverty, and reduction in inequality over the long term.
In this sense, it is a comprehensive and multidimensional concept and encompasses the development of agriculture and allied activities — village and cottage industries and crafts, socio-economic, infrastructure, community services and facilities, and above all, the human resources in rural areas. As a phenomenon, it is the result of interactions between various physical, technological, economic, socio-cultural, institutional factors. As a strategy, it is designed to improve the economic and social well-being of a specific group of people — the rural poor.
As a discipline, it is multidisciplinary in nature representing an intersection of agricultural, social, behavioral, engineering, and management sciences. It involves helping the poorest among those who seek a livelihood in the rural areas to demand and control more of the benefits of rural development. According to Agarwal , rural development is a strategy designed to improve the economic and social life of rural poor. The United Nations defines Rural Development as: Rural Development is a process of change, by which the efforts of the people themselves are united, those of government authorities to improve their economic, social and cultural conditions of communities in to the life of the nation and to enable them to contribute fully to national programme.
Rural Development is a process of bringing change among rural community from the traditional way of living to progressive way of living. It is also expressed as a movement for progress. Thus, rural development may mean any one of these, depending upon our focus. To avoid ineffective floundering among the myriad definitions we shall define rural development as a process of developing and utilizing natural and human resources, technologies, infrastructural facilities, institutions and organizations, and government policies and programmes to encourage and speed up economic growth in rural areas, to provide jobs and to improve the quality of rural life towards self-sustenance.
In addition to economic growth, this process typically involves changes in popular attitudes, and in many cases even in customs and beliefs. Rural development is a process of providing opportunities, services and amenities to the rural people so that they can improve their social, economic, political, cultural and physical well-being and environmental consciousness Battad, It is characterized by increased agricultural productivity and incomes, good governance, improved people empowerment, good health and nutrition, has dignity and honor to live in a sustainable environment and free society.
Sison and Valera defined rural development as follows: A process through which rural poverty is alleviated by sustained increase in productivity and incomes of low-income rural workers and households World Bank, A process of change among hundreds of thousands of rural people … development refers only to those changes which are seen as desirable among rural people who are changing Axin, Why Rural Development?
In most developing countries, there is widespread poverty in the rural areas. Rural areas lag far behind urban centres with regards to social, educational, technical and economic infrastructure. However, for most of these countries, agricultural activities in the rural areas constitute the greatest proportion of foreign exchange earnings in addition to satisfying other domestic needs.
In most developing countries, rural development is synonymous with national development. Rural Mass Poverty Over the past 20 — 30 years, there has been virtually no improvement in the situation of the rural poor in developing countries. Even with countries having positive development records, the problem of mass poverty in the rural areas has not been solved. The causes of rural poverty have many facets and differ in forms from one country to another.
Important parts have been played both by factors related to the world economy and by societal policy influences within the countries themselves. Generally, the vast majority of the rural poor possess neither the market power nor the political power they need in order to successfully assert their needs in the struggle to obtain scarce resources and to gain their share of markets to sell their produce on the right terms.
This problem is even worsened by high population growth rate in the face of dwindling natural resources. In many cases, access to land, labour, other productive inputs and markets is distributed extremely unequally within the rural areas. As a result, more and more people are finding it extremely difficult to secure a dignified existence.
This lead to the cyclical problems of hunger, diseases, and ignorance. People are locked in their poverty as if they are in straitjacket. Every bottleneck caused by poverty exacerbates the next one. They have become so intertwined with each other that together they stop people from developing their skills and exploiting their opportunities. The elements of poverty lead to underdevelopment and underdevelopment brings further poverty.
As far as the rural masses are concerned, the crucial factor determines the insufficient utilization of natural resources, and hence impoverishment, is lack of access to external services and markets. Thus in areas where access to relevant services and markets has not been provided either by the private sector or by government, people usually have neither the opportunity nor any incentive to improve their utilization of natural resources.
Thus a crucial distinguishing feature of the poverty of small rural producers is that they do not have access at all to services and markets they need, or else only on unfavourable terms. As they increasingly depend on external conditions which affect their production and also upon other influences, and as such conditions at times undergo rapid and dramatic changes, the capacity of the people affected to solve their own problems, which would normally be highly developed in traditional systems is frequently over-stretched.
Rural poverty unperceived There is an old English proverb that what the eye does not see; the heart does not grieve about. Most rural development experts really know very little about the plight of the rural poor. Many are headquarters and field staff of government agencies. Some are academic researchers, aid agency personnel, businessmen, consultants, priests, school teachers etc. They are: i. The intent is to collect information about households which can then be generated for that rural area.
Definition The farm-household is defined as the number of people living either under the same or different roofs but feeding from the same pot. Below is a list of the kinds of decisions a farm household can or has to make: 1. Production oriented x What to produce x How to produce x How much to produce x When to produce x Where to produce 2.
Resource-use oriented x How much hired labour required x Acquisition of inputs x Renting in or renting out of land resources 3. Investment oriented x Where and how the farmer can invest his savings, safety and profitability x Investment in direct means of production 4. Liquidity oriented x How much cash is required by the farm household for consumption, taxation marketing etc. The bureaucratic or top-down approach 2. The commercialization approach 3.
The participatory bottom-top approach 4. The mobilization approach These approaches have different point of entry, different levels and sources of financing and many view development in different ways. The specific interests of the approaches also vary. Some approaches place more emphases on the interest of the state while as in some approaches, the communities at grassroots are given priority. The decision regarding which approaches to use depends very much on the values of the core group members, type of issues, political atmosphere, power structure etc.
In this approach, development packages are planned at the top management level in government bureaucracies and implemented at the grassroots. There is strict line of command from, e. The Commercialisation approach This approach emphasizes on the modification of traditional agriculture and other traditional activities. The argument is that, traditional agriculture is dominant in most developing countries.
Additionally, agriculture forms the major source of foreign exchange for many developing countries. Thus, if the agricultural sector is modernized, production will immensely increase. Thus, the traditional farmer should be encouraged to adopt modern production technology. This calls for the presence of change agents in rural communities who help to promote the adoption of modern farming methods in the rural communities.
This is normally not the case as no mechanisms, are put in place to ensure this. The Participatory Approach This approach emerged due to the failure of the top-down approach. It was discovered that, most national rural development programmes based on the top-down approach failed woefully because they did not involve local communities in decisions regarding their improvement.
Lack of knowledge on procurement and financial management may also affect efficient management of development project interventions. Mobilization Approach This approach is based on raising the consciousness of peasants in the countryside as a way of eliminating the manipulative and exploitative tendencies of so-called outside development organisations.
Mobilization is a means of empowering local people so that they undertake their future in their own hands. They learn to distinguish between development interventions, so that they reject negative interventions while embracing positive interventions. The people come together and mobilize resources of the countryside to further local development.
It was used to refer to the instrumentality whereby the poor nations of Asia, Africa, the Middle- East and Latin America were to attain standards of living similar to those of the west. This was mainly based on the European and American administrative traditions noted in scientific management. At the end of the first Second World War, it became apparent that if nations can plan and win a war, then a map could be planned at to eliminate poverty from the world.
Development, here, was perceived as obtaining the standard of the West Development Administration was synonymous to westernisation. As it became clear that Development Administration and political economy cannot be separated, Development Strategies were adopted aimed at maintaining stability in countries. This was mainly done by western nations to help fight the spread of communism.
Development packages, thus often go hand in hand with defence packages e. Most development efforts were channeled through existing bureaucracies in the recipient countries. However, it was later discovered that this approach has effected very little development in poor nations.
Forms of development administration 1. Centralised administration Centralised administration is a type of administrative system were all major decisions are made at the top hierarchy of the administration. Decision or activities at the lower levels were to be approved by the centre. Many developing countries in the third world are still highly centralised. Most of these countries, especially those in Africa intended a more or less centralised system of administration formally practiced by colonial powers.
Although the colonial power used centralised planning to enhance firm control of the colonies, at independence, these states did little to modify the highly bureaucratic centralised administrative structures. Bureaucracies run centralised administrations: The term bureaucracy has been used by various authors of development administration.
However, its precise meaning has varied depending on the particular approaches and emphases of different authors. It suggests slow moving organisation usually associated with government, which serves the public with a mixed of arrogance, deliberate obstruction and incompetence. Bureaucracy is based on rules, which are generally accepted by members of the organisation. They have their origin from different schools of thought and scientific disciplines. Development is a process of continues rise in the capability of the people to control their present and future well-being Cuyno, et al.
The definition embraces three basic concepts. Control of oneself. Therefore, development as a process involves both economic growth and social development. From the economist point of view, development is usually associated with the material well- being of a given society. It is commonly thought of a sustained increase in per capita income commonly known as GNP Garcia, Development is a sociological perspective that involves primarily social change. Bernard S. Philips as cited by Garcia emphasized that the concept of social change converges around the idea of development.
For development to take place in a society, all its structures — social, economic and political — should serve as stimulants to change. If they pose as barriers, development becomes unattainable.
Hence, development seems to be much closely related to social change. To the layman, development means having adequate food, i. Development therefore, includes: a The people self-esteem, dignity, security, potential b The economy c Technology d Culture e Moral values f Environmental preservation g Social justice h Literacy and education i Change in social structure j Equal distribution of wealth k Organization l Discipline m Freedom from servitude, debt, etc.
Development is basically to improve in the standard of living of the entire population of a given country or region. It is a process with many economic and social dimensions, but requires as a minimum, rising per capita incomes, eradication of absolute poverty, and reduction in inequality over the long term. In this sense, it is a comprehensive and multidimensional concept and encompasses the development of agriculture and allied activities — village and cottage industries and crafts, socio-economic, infrastructure, community services and facilities, and above all, the human resources in rural areas.
As a phenomenon, it is the result of interactions between various physical, technological, economic, socio-cultural, institutional factors.
As a strategy, it is designed to improve the economic and social well-being of a specific group of people — the rural poor. As a discipline, it is multidisciplinary in nature representing an intersection of agricultural, social, behavioral, engineering, and management sciences. It involves helping the poorest among those who seek a livelihood in the rural areas to demand and control more of the benefits of rural development. According to Agarwal , rural development is a strategy designed to improve the economic and social life of rural poor.
The United Nations defines Rural Development as: Rural Development is a process of change, by which the efforts of the people themselves are united, those of government authorities to improve their economic, social and cultural conditions of communities in to the life of the nation and to enable them to contribute fully to national programme. Rural Development is a process of bringing change among rural community from the traditional way of living to progressive way of living.
It is also expressed as a movement for progress. Thus, rural development may mean any one of these, depending upon our focus. To avoid ineffective floundering among the myriad definitions we shall define rural development as a process of developing and utilizing natural and human resources, technologies, infrastructural facilities, institutions and organizations, and government policies and programmes to encourage and speed up economic growth in rural areas, to provide jobs and to improve the quality of rural life towards self-sustenance.
In addition to economic growth, this process typically involves changes in popular attitudes, and in many cases even in customs and beliefs. Rural development is a process of providing opportunities, services and amenities to the rural people so that they can improve their social, economic, political, cultural and physical well-being and environmental consciousness Battad, It is characterized by increased agricultural productivity and incomes, good governance, improved people empowerment, good health and nutrition, has dignity and honor to live in a sustainable environment and free society.
Sison and Valera defined rural development as follows: A process through which rural poverty is alleviated by sustained increase in productivity and incomes of low-income rural workers and households World Bank, A process of change among hundreds of thousands of rural people … development refers only to those changes which are seen as desirable among rural people who are changing Axin, Why Rural Development? In most developing countries, there is widespread poverty in the rural areas.
Rural areas lag far behind urban centres with regards to social, educational, technical and economic infrastructure. However, for most of these countries, agricultural activities in the rural areas constitute the greatest proportion of foreign exchange earnings in addition to satisfying other domestic needs. In most developing countries, rural development is synonymous with national development.
Rural Mass Poverty Over the past 20 — 30 years, there has been virtually no improvement in the situation of the rural poor in developing countries. Even with countries having positive development records, the problem of mass poverty in the rural areas has not been solved.
The causes of rural poverty have many facets and differ in forms from one country to another. Important parts have been played both by factors related to the world economy and by societal policy influences within the countries themselves. Generally, the vast majority of the rural poor possess neither the market power nor the political power they need in order to successfully assert their needs in the struggle to obtain scarce resources and to gain their share of markets to sell their produce on the right terms.
This problem is even worsened by high population growth rate in the face of dwindling natural resources. In many cases, access to land, labour, other productive inputs and markets is distributed extremely unequally within the rural areas.
As a result, more and more people are finding it extremely difficult to secure a dignified existence. This lead to the cyclical problems of hunger, diseases, and ignorance.
People are locked in their poverty as if they are in straitjacket. Every bottleneck caused by poverty exacerbates the next one. They have become so intertwined with each other that together they stop people from developing their skills and exploiting their opportunities. The elements of poverty lead to underdevelopment and underdevelopment brings further poverty.
As far as the rural masses are concerned, the crucial factor determines the insufficient utilization of natural resources, and hence impoverishment, is lack of access to external services and markets. Thus in areas where access to relevant services and markets has not been provided either by the private sector or by government, people usually have neither the opportunity nor any incentive to improve their utilization of natural resources. Thus a crucial distinguishing feature of the poverty of small rural producers is that they do not have access at all to services and markets they need, or else only on unfavourable terms.
As they increasingly depend on external conditions which affect their production and also upon other influences, and as such conditions at times undergo rapid and dramatic changes, the capacity of the people affected to solve their own problems, which would normally be highly developed in traditional systems is frequently over-stretched.
Rural poverty unperceived There is an old English proverb that what the eye does not see; the heart does not grieve about. Most rural development experts really know very little about the plight of the rural poor. Many are headquarters and field staff of government agencies. Some are academic researchers, aid agency personnel, businessmen, consultants, priests, school teachers etc.
They are: i. The intent is to collect information about households which can then be generated for that rural area. Definition The farm-household is defined as the number of people living either under the same or different roofs but feeding from the same pot.
Below is a list of the kinds of decisions a farm household can or has to make: 1. Production oriented x What to produce x How to produce x How much to produce x When to produce x Where to produce 2.
Resource-use oriented x How much hired labour required x Acquisition of inputs x Renting in or renting out of land resources 3. Investment oriented x Where and how the farmer can invest his savings, safety and profitability x Investment in direct means of production 4.
Liquidity oriented x How much cash is required by the farm household for consumption, taxation marketing etc. The bureaucratic or top-down approach 2. The commercialization approach 3. The participatory bottom-top approach 4. The mobilization approach These approaches have different point of entry, different levels and sources of financing and many view development in different ways. The specific interests of the approaches also vary. Some approaches place more emphases on the interest of the state while as in some approaches, the communities at grassroots are given priority.
The decision regarding which approaches to use depends very much on the values of the core group members, type of issues, political atmosphere, power structure etc. In this approach, development packages are planned at the top management level in government bureaucracies and implemented at the grassroots.
There is strict line of command from, e. The Commercialisation approach This approach emphasizes on the modification of traditional agriculture and other traditional activities. The argument is that, traditional agriculture is dominant in most developing countries. Additionally, agriculture forms the major source of foreign exchange for many developing countries.
Thus, if the agricultural sector is modernized, production will immensely increase. Thus, the traditional farmer should be encouraged to adopt modern production technology. This calls for the presence of change agents in rural communities who help to promote the adoption of modern farming methods in the rural communities. This is normally not the case as no mechanisms, are put in place to ensure this. The Participatory Approach This approach emerged due to the failure of the top-down approach. It was discovered that, most national rural development programmes based on the top-down approach failed woefully because they did not involve local communities in decisions regarding their improvement.
Lack of knowledge on procurement and financial management may also affect efficient management of development project interventions. Mobilization Approach This approach is based on raising the consciousness of peasants in the countryside as a way of eliminating the manipulative and exploitative tendencies of so-called outside development organisations.
Mobilization is a means of empowering local people so that they undertake their future in their own hands. They learn to distinguish between development interventions, so that they reject negative interventions while embracing positive interventions. The people come together and mobilize resources of the countryside to further local development. It was used to refer to the instrumentality whereby the poor nations of Asia, Africa, the Middle- East and Latin America were to attain standards of living similar to those of the west.
This was mainly based on the European and American administrative traditions noted in scientific management. At the end of the first Second World War, it became apparent that if nations can plan and win a war, then a map could be planned at to eliminate poverty from the world.
Development, here, was perceived as obtaining the standard of the West Development Administration was synonymous to westernisation. As it became clear that Development Administration and political economy cannot be separated, Development Strategies were adopted aimed at maintaining stability in countries.
This was mainly done by western nations to help fight the spread of communism. Development packages, thus often go hand in hand with defence packages e. Most development efforts were channeled through existing bureaucracies in the recipient countries. However, it was later discovered that this approach has effected very little development in poor nations.
Forms of development administration 1. Centralised administration Centralised administration is a type of administrative system were all major decisions are made at the top hierarchy of the administration.
Decision or activities at the lower levels were to be approved by the centre. Many developing countries in the third world are still highly centralised. Most of these countries, especially those in Africa intended a more or less centralised system of administration formally practiced by colonial powers. Although the colonial power used centralised planning to enhance firm control of the colonies, at independence, these states did little to modify the highly bureaucratic centralised administrative structures.
Bureaucracies run centralised administrations: The term bureaucracy has been used by various authors of development administration. However, its precise meaning has varied depending on the particular approaches and emphases of different authors. It suggests slow moving organisation usually associated with government, which serves the public with a mixed of arrogance, deliberate obstruction and incompetence.
Bureaucracy is based on rules, which are generally accepted by members of the organisation. Bureaucracy is relatively continuous in its operations. For example, although governments may change as one set of political figure is replaced by another. Bureaucracy tends to remain iii. Based upon the idea of hierarchy. There are various layers of administration with lower positions under the control of and supervisions of higher ones.
There can be a large number of different persons within hierarchy especially in a very large organisations such as central government ministries. Officials do not own their jobs, the job belongs to the organisation not the individual who happens to be occupying the particular position in the hierarchy at any point in time.
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